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| − | [[category: important]]
| + | Some outdated, yet interesting considerations e.g. on types of arguments, discussion manners, and discussion practices archived to [http://en.opasnet.org/en-opwiki/index.php?title=Dealing_with_disputes&oldid=5987] and [http://en.opasnet.org/en-opwiki/index.php?title=Discussion&oldid=8721]. |
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| − | == Contributing to a discussion ==
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| − | '''Contributing to a discussion''' presents rules of discussion engagement and discussion format, as well rules for editing discussions.
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| − | Your contribution in the form of remarks or argumentative criticism on the content of the wikipages is most welcome. It can change the outcome of the integrated risk assessment; it will improve it and make the integrated risk assessment better understandable for decision makers and other stakeholders. The discussions will show the reasoning behind our work; it will indicate the objective and normative aspects in the risk assessment. In this way, decision makers and stakeholders in general can judge themselves whether they agree on our normative weighting. In order to obtain an orderly discussion it is appreciated if you follow the discussion rules and apply the discussion format.
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| − | '''Discussion rules'''
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| − | # Freedom of opinion. Everyone has the right to criticise or comment on the ''content'' of the wikipages.
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| − | # State your critique with supporting arguments or your comment or remarks under the tab ''discussion'' {{disclink|This is the discussion tab.}} and sign it.
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| − | # Comments, remarks, statements and argumentation must relate to the topic of the wikipage.
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| − | # Only statements made and arguments given can be attacked.
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| − | # Comments, remarks, statements and argumentation can NOT be redundant. They cannot be repeated.
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| − | # You are supposed to be committed to your statements, that is:
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| − | :: a) if someone doubts on your statement ({{comment| || }}), you must explain it (edit or defend {{defend| || }} ).
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| − | :: b) if someone attacks your statement ({{attack| || }}), you must defend it ({{defend| || }} ).
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| − | :: c) if someone doubts on your argument ({{comment| || }}), you should explain it (edit or defend {{defend| || }} ).
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| − | :: d) if someone attacks your argument ({{attack| || }} ), you should defend it ({{defend| || }} ).
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| − | '''Discussion format'''
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| − | '''BASIC DISCUSSION FORMAT:''' For discussing, the discussion format (Blue '''D''' in the toolbar on the ''edit'' tab) should be used. This is how the discussion format appears:
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| − | {{discussion
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| − | |Dispute= Add topic of discussion: This is either
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| − | ::* a single statement made in the wikipage text upon which someone cast doubt, or
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| − | ::* a statement made in the wikipage text and an opposing statement (thesis and anti-thesis)
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| − | |Outcome= Under discussion (to be changed when a conclusion is found)
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| − | |Argumentation =
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| − | Add argumentation using attack-, defend- and comment buttons in the toolbar. Please be to the point and re-read your contribution first, before you store it.
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| − | {{comment|#(number x): |The blue horizontal line represents the comment button. It yields this blue layout, which is used for '''comments''' and '''remarks'''.| }}
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| − | {{defend|#(number x): |This green arrow represents a '''defending argument'''.| }}
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| − | {{attack|#(number x): |This red arrow represents an '''offending argument'''. | }}
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| − | }}
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| − | Furthermore:
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| − | * If you agree with an argument made by others, you can place your signature (in the toolbar) under the argument.
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| − | * Arguments may be edited or restructured. However, if there are signatures of other people, only minor edits are allowed without their explicit acceptance.
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| − | * If agreement is reached, i.e. the dispute is settled or resolved, the result can be stated at '''outcome'''.
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| − | '''N.B.''' In order to contribute to the discussion you should be logged in. If you have not yet a user account, you can make one.
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| − | ----
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| − | '''ARGUMENTATION TYPE INDICATION:''' It is recommended that you indicate your argument type, so that readers (decision makers) can see at onces whether the argument is '''theoretical''' (T), '''ethical''' (E) or '''practical''' (P). Theoretical arguments are arguments that can be falsified (even after discussion closure). Ethical arguments are arguments based on ethics. Practical arguments are situation specific arguments. Notation examples:
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| − | : {{attack|#(7 E): |This is an example of the notation of an offending ethical argument.| }}
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| − | : {{defend|#(8 T): |This is an example of the notation of a defending theoretical argument.| }}
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| − | '''ARGUMENTATION STRUCTURE:''' If you use '''coordinative arguments'''*, it is recommended that you use this notation:
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| − | :{{defend|#(3 P): |(3.1) We have no capacity for further research. '''AND''' (3.2.) There is no budget to outsource research.| }}
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| − | If you use '''subordinative argumentation'''**, it is recommended that you use this notation:
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| − | :{{defend|#(4 P): |We have no time for further research on this topic.| }}
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| − | :: {{defend|#(5 P): |''Because'' there is other research to be done.| }}
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| − | ::: {{defend|#(6 P): |''Because'' the results of that research have to be included into the report.| }}
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| − | The purpose of the numbers is to make it easier to refer to a specific argument. The numbers are simply running numbers and they do not show a position in the argumentation thread. If you add an argument between the two other ones, the arguments do not show up in numerical order. This is OK. However with coordinative arguments, sub-numbering is used because only the arguments together make a whole rational argument. Alone these arguments would not hold against rational criticism.
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| − | : *Coordinative argumentation is using complementing arguments, that are mutual dependent for the defense of/attack on the statement.
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| − | : ** Subordinative argumentation is using arguments to support arguments.
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| − | '''Editing discussions'''
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| − | * In principle everyone can edit a discussion.
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| − | * If you have initiated a discussion, it is expected that you also take care of the discussion editing.
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| − | * It is polite to inform the other discussion participants about changes (by placing a notification on their user page).
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| − | Rules for editing discussions
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| − | # Only minor changes can be made to arguments with signatures of other people. However, you can suggest improvements and ask the persons who signed the original argument if they agree.
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| − | # Valid arguments come first ( {{attack|# || }} or {{defend|# || }} ), invalidated arguments at the end ( {{attack_invalid|# || }} or {{defend_invalid|# || }} ) of the discussion. However, the hierarchy (threads) of argumentation must be maintained.
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| − | # You cannot simply remove arguments that are irrelevant within their context. This is what you can do instead:
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| − | #: a) You can attack the argument with a relevance argument. If you are right, your argument will invalidate the original one.
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| − | #: b) You can cut and paste the argument into a relevant discussion. Please, write a comment on the original argument location describing what was moved, why the argument was moved (you must be able to show the arguments irrelevance), and to where it was moved (add a link to the new page).
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| − | '''Related pages'''
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| − | * [[:en:Pragma-dialectics | Pragma-dialectical argumentation theory]]
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| − | == Intarese: Dealing with disputes ==
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| − | '''This page addresses manners to deal with disputes''' about content and NOT persons.
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| − | ==Five ways of dealing with conflict yourself==
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| − | In case of dispute, you can act in one of the following five ways (Rahim, 1983, 1992; Thomas & Kilmann, 1974):
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| − | You can settle the dispute by
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| − | * Avoidance: you ignore the dispute. "It is not important to the project."
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| − | * Accommodation: you subordinate your view/opinion to those of others. "Lets do it their way and get it over with."
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| − | * Competition: you superordinate your view/opinion to those of others. "It is most important that we do it this way."
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| − | Or you can resolve the dispute by
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| − | * Compromise: you ''combine'' your view/opinion with those of others. "If we take his comment and her opinion into account, we can do it like this, which does not conflict with their concern: every body can be satisfied."
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| − | * '''Collaboration''': you and the others ''integrate'' by means of [[en:pragma-dialectics | argumentation]] your views/opinions in a common standpoint. This is one of the most instructive features of risk assessment and it requires understanding of dispute causes. Collaboration creates something new, whereas other styles of conflict management (such as compromise) deal with what already exists (Follet, 1940). "Now, every body can be happy."
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| − | ==Three kinds of disputes==
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| − | Within INTARESE, three kinds of potential disputes can be distinguished: disputes about what will be included in the assessment (scientific content related), disputes about who does what (task related), and non-scientific content disputes, such as stakeholder involvement disputes.
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| − | ===Scientific content related disputes===
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| − | Disputes concerning scientific content can be resolved (by compromise or collaboration) through an '''argumentative discourse'''. Within INTARESE-wiki the argumentative discourse can be held under the tab ''discussion''. Comments and argumentative criticism related to the content of the page is most welcomed. In order to arrange the discussions conveniently, discussion participants are asked to provide their contributions in a standardised format, which can be found [[contributing to a discussion | here]].
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| − | If the resolution remains forthcoming, you can ask another person, who is ''not'' involved in the discussion, to comment on the arguments in a neutral way.
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| − | In the ULTIMATE case - if the dispute cannot be settled (by avoidance, accommodation, or competition) or resolved (through compromise or collaboration), you can request arbitrage. The Scientific Council will be arbitrator in case of dispute concerning:
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| − | * the scientific '''content of final output''' (articles, posters and oral presentations);
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| − | * the '''authorship''' of a manuscript;
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| − | * '''dissemination''' of results and findings,
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| − | as stated in [http://projects.imperial-consultants.co.uk/page/view/141 IDEAS Integrated Dissemination of ExploitAtion Strategy]. The Scientific Council included the subproject leaders, the project co-ordinator and the project manager.
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| − | ===Task related disputes===
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| − | You can settle disputes concerning tasks within the work packages by yourself, or you bring them to the attention of the work package ''leader''. Disputes concerning tasks within the subproject, but not related to any particular work package, can be brought to the attention of the subproject ''co-ordinator''.
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| − | An overview of work package leaders and subproject co-ordinators can be found in table 9 on page 88 of the [http://projects.imperial-consultants.co.uk/files/list/19?dir=L0lOVEFSRVNFIEdlbmVyYWwgUHJvamVjdCBJbmZvcm1hdGlvbi9EZXNjcmlw%0AdGlvbiBvZiBXb3Jr%0A INTARESE work description].
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| − | ===Stakeholder related disputes===
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| − | In case of a dispute about [[Organizing stakeholder involvement | (openness of)]] stakeholder involvement (Whom to involve, when and how?), it is recommended to settle or resolve the dispute within the work package group and/or to consult people of subproject 6.
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| − | In case of a dispute involving a stakeholder (stakeholder is one of the disputing parties), it is recommended to resolve the dispute by [[en:pragma-dialectics | argumentation]], and if necessary with the help of a neutral party.
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| − | ==Sources==
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| − | * Follet, M.P. (1940) ''Constructive conflict.'' in H.C. Metcalf & L. Urwick (Eds.), Dynamic Administration: The Collective Papers of Mary Parker Follet. New York: Harper & Brothers.
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| − | * Rahim, M.A. (1983) ''A measure of styles of handling interpersonal conflict.'' in Academy of Management Journal 26(.) pp.368-376
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| − | * Rahim, M.A. (1992) ''Managing Conflict in Organizations.'' (2nd ed.) Westport: Praeger.
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| − | * Thomas, K.W. & R.H. Kilmann (1974) ''Thomas-Kilmann conflict-mode instrument.'' Tuxedo: XICOM.
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| − | * [http://projects.imperial-consultants.co.uk/page/view/141 IDEAS Integrated Dissemination of ExploitAtion Strategy] in the privat area on [http://www.intarese.org www.intarese.org] project deliverables/ months 0-30 deliverables / deliverable no.3
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| − | * [http://projects.imperial-consultants.co.uk/files/list/19?dir=L0lOVEFSRVNFIEdlbmVyYWwgUHJvamVjdCBJbmZvcm1hdGlvbi9EZXNjcmlw%0AdGlvbiBvZiBXb3Jr%0A INTARESE work description] in the private area on [http://www.intarese.org www.intarese.org] /project file manager/ Description of work/ Intarese DoW Final200106.pdf
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| − | ==Related pages==
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| − | *[[en:pragma-dialectics| Argumentation Analysis]]
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| − | *[[Organizing stakeholder involvement]]
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| − | ==References==
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| − | <references/>
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When a diverse group of contributors participate in making a risk assessment, it is obvious that disputes may arise. One of the most instructive features of risk assessment is to understand both these disputes and the reasons why a particular outcome occurs. The risk assessment method must include guidance to deal with disputes, find resolutions and document the choices made so that they can be defended afterwards. Argumentation theory offers a basis for these methods.
Van Eemeren and Grootendorst have operationalised the dispute resolving problem in the following way: "When should I, as a rational critic who judges reasonably, regard an argument as acceptable?" [1] Their answer is, very briefly, that disputes are solved using formal argumentation. The proponent and opponent of a statement can give arguments supporting their own statement (or other arguments) or attacking the other discussant's statement or arguments. There are certain criteria that each argument must fulfil, such as rationality and relevance. The dispute is resolved when one discussant is able to base his/her argumentation on arguments that both discussants agree on.
The theoretical background referred to here is the pragma-dialectical approach to argumentation theory, also known as the Amsterdam school of argumentation, developed by Frans van Eemeren and Rob Grootendorst from the University of Amsterdam. Only the main aspects of the theory in this scope are presented here and a more detailed and thorough representation of the theory can be found from e.g. van Eemeren, Grootendosrt, Henkemans: Argumentation - Analysis, Evaluation, Presentation. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Inc., 2002. The view presented here (as well as pragma-dialectics itself) also builds on critical rationalism as philosophical basis.
Traditionally the main objective of the pragma-dialectical approach is to resolve a difference of opinion by means of argumentative discourse. Critical rationalism in practice means that there are no absolute truths, so everything can be questioned and standpoints are always accepted only as temporarily and they can be discarded or changed if better/improved ones are found.
Pragma-dialectical argumentation can also be seen as a means for knowledge production, i.e. to bridge the gap between current knowledge base and the needed knowledge e.g. within a group. From the point of view of environmental health risk assessment, this is probably the most useful aspect of using argumentation in risk assessments. Argumenting for and against is used as a means to explore the validity, acceptability and correctness of the central standpoints/statements in focus. Accordingly the standpoints/statements are refined, reformulated, discarded etc. as appears necessary along the argumentative discourse.
The essential terminology in relation to our uses of the theory that requires some explanantion is explained here.
Some outdated, yet interesting considerations e.g. on types of arguments, discussion manners, and discussion practices archived to [1] and [2].
