Difference between revisions of "Evolutionary origin of human traits"

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Question

Why and how did humans become so different from other apes?

Answer

Rationale

There are conflicting hypotheses to explain why the traits that so clearly distinguish humans from other primates originally evolved. One idea is that the ancestors of humans came to live in a different kind of environment than the ancestors of chimpanzees and gorillas, and hence experienced different selection pressures and obtained a suite of unique traits as adaptations to the new environment. What that new environment was and which selection pressures were most important has been debated, however, and a number of hypotheses based on ideas other than environmental adaptation have also been proposed. To date, general discussion on the topic seems mostly to have focused on finding merit or flaws in one hypothesis at a time. The purpose of this page is to provide a structured forum for the general evaluation and comparison of the different hypotheses on human origins.

The answerers' opinions should be used as continuous [0,1] variables in such a way that each answer is transformed into its quantile of all answers to that question. Then neural networks, Bayesian belief network analyzers (such as B-source), or other statistical tools can be applied.

For single answer analyses, multinomial regression models should be applied.

Calculations

+ Show code - Hide code

library(OpasnetUtils)
library(ggplot2)

# Creates a sample data a.

a <- data.frame(
	Occupation = rep(c("Biology", "Paleontology"), each = 3), 
	Question = c("A", "B", "C"), 
	Answer = sample(1:5, size = 180, replace = TRUE)
)

# Creates a simple histogram with font size 24. 
# Then makes a grid of these histograms based on different values of Occupation * Question

ggplot(a, aes(x=Answer)) +
	geom_histogram() + 
	theme_grey(base_size = 24) +
	facet_grid(Occupation~Question, scale='free')

Data version 1: raw data in Excel from Webropol: free text columns removed [1]
Data version 2: cleaned with this code [2].

+ Show code - Hide code

library(OpasnetUtils)
library(ggplot2)

# Fetch the stored raw data (requires a password to open it).

objects.get("Gygi7pqJFrngDdbx")

data <- objects.decode(etable, key)

# Print and plot examples of the cleaned data.

titles <- c(
"- ",
"- ",
"- ",
"- ",
"Anthropology or archaeology",
"Biology (animal physiology, anatomy or morphology) ",
"Biology (ecology) ",
"Biology (evolution) ",
"Biology (genetics or molecular biology) ",
"Biology (other, please specify) ",
"Geology ",
"Human cardiovascular or respiratory system ",
"Human musculoskeletal system ",
"Human nervous system ",
"Human nutrition ",
"Other aspects of human biology (please specify) ",
"Paleoanthropology ",
"Paleontology ",
"Other, please specify ",
"Peer reviewed articles in scientific journals ",
"Articles or books targeted at the general public ",
"Peer reviewed articles in scientific journals ",
"Articles or books targeted at the general public ",
"- ",
"- ",
"When covering long distances on the ground, walking or running erect on two legs is energetically more efficient than walking or running on four legs. ",
"In the canopy, walking erect facilitates using multiple supports (as in orangutans) and hence makes it possible to move on thinner branches than when brachiating or moving quadrupedally. ",
"In a littoral habitat, walking erect allows wading in deeper water with the nostrils above the surface (apes cross water bodies bipedally), and the same posture increases streamlining when swimming and diving for food (as in penguins). ",
"Walking erect helps in thermoregulation in the savanna by exposing less skin to the midday sun and more skin to cooling wind. ",
"Walking erect makes it possible to see above the savanna grass and hence spot danger from further away. ",
"Walking erect makes foraging more efficient, because hands are not needed for locomotion. ",
"Walking erect makes it easier for a male to carry high-quality food such as meat to the female and infants. ",
"Walking erect makes it possible for a female to carry its offspring in its arms. ",
"Walking erect makes it easier to use tools and weapons. ",
"Walking erect is favored by sexual selection, as it makes the genitals more visible. ",
"A shift in diet towards eating more meat triggers encephalization, because meat is rich in energy. ",
"A shift in diet towards eating more fish and other seafood triggers encephalization, because seafood is rich in both energy and the omega-3 fatty acids that are an essential component of brain tissue. ",
"The use of fire triggers encephalization, because cooking increases the nutritional value of plant foods. ",
"Complex social organization causes pressure for greater intelligence and hence triggers encephalization. ",
"Collaborative hunting causes pressure for greater intelligence and hence triggers encephalization. ",
"Spoken language causes pressure for greater intelligence and hence triggers encephalization. ",
"Warfare causes pressure for greater intelligence and hence triggers encephalization. ",
"Encephalization is a secondary effect of neoteny (the retention of juvenile features into adulthood), which is advantageous when specialized adult morphology adapted to one environment has become maladaptive in a new environment. ",
"Encephalization is triggered by bipedalism, which changes the blood circulation and provides a cooling mechanism for the larger brain. ",
"Encephalization is triggered by nakedness, which provides a cooling mechanism for the larger brain. ",
"Direct skin-to-skin contact strengthens the emotional bond between a female and its nursing offspring. ",
"Direct skin-to-skin contact makes sex more enjoyable, and is favored by sexual selection. ",
"In animals that feed messily on carrion, naked skin stays cleaner than hairy skin (or feather-covered skin as in vultures). ",
"In mammals that live in permanent nests, naked skin helps to avoid a high ectoparasite load. ",
"In mammals that live partly or entirely in water, fur is often lost because it causes drag when swimming but fails to provide efficient insulation when wet (e.g. walrus, hippopotamuses, dolphins). ",
"In mammals that hunt on the savanna, naked skin dissipates heat more efficiently and reduces the risk of becoming overheated. ",
"Large mammals can regulate their body temperature without investing in hair, and humans are relatively large compared to other primates. ",
"Once the use of clothes has become common, fur becomes unnecessary. ",
"In conditions of variable food supply, subcutaneous fat can store energy for times of food scarcity, and in infants it secures the development of the large brain. ",
"In wet conditions, subcutaneous fat provides more efficient insulation than hair does, and it makes swimming easier by increasing buoyancy and streamlining of the body. ",
"Subcutaneous fat is an adaptation to thermoregulation in the savanna, together with nakedness and sweating. ",
"Subcutaneous fat defines the body shape and its evolution is driven by sexual selection. ",
"Articulate speech requires a descended larynx, because this makes it possible to produce a wider variety of sounds. ",
"A descended larynx makes the voice stronger and more impressive, and can evolve through sexual selection (as in the males of some deer). ",
"A descended larynx can evolve as an adaptation to diving (as in some aquatic mammals), because it makes it possible to close the air passages when under water and to inhale rapidly through the mouth when surfacing. ",
"Speech is triggered by the descended larynx, which allows making a wider variety of sounds. ",
"Speech requires voluntary breath control, which can evolve as an adaptation to diving. In water, visual and olfactory cues are inadequate and therefore liable to be replaced by vocal communication (as in whales). ",
"Speech requires voluntary breath control, which can evolve after bipedalism frees breathing from the constraint posed by the mechanics of locomotion. ",
"Speech provides a means for females to reassure their offspring who have to be put down while foraging. ",
"Social pressure for more elaborate communication triggers evolution of speech. ",
"Collective hunting requires a means of effective communication and therefore triggers evolution of speech. ",
"Transmitting cultural tradition (e.g., how to cope with unusually severe droughts) from one generation to the next requires a means of effective communication and therefore triggers evolution of speech. ",
"Human babies can be taken for a swim long before they can walk. They are comfortable in water and capable of holding their breath when submerged. ",
"Unlike apes, humans have an arched nose and flexible nostrils. These help prevent water from entering the respiratory tract when diving. ",
"Humans have a relatively weak sense of smell, as aquatic mammals often do. ",
"Humans have partial webbing between their fingers and toes. Webbed feet are common among semi-aquatic animals (such as otters and ducks), but are not found in non-human primates. ",
"Cooling sweat is excreted from eccrine glands in humans but from apocrine glands in other primates. Apocrine glands could have lost their thermoregulatory function in human ancestors during a period when dip-cooling replaced sweat-cooling. ",
"Humans sweat more profusely than any other primate. Since this can lead to fatal loss of water and electrolytes in a few hours, the trait probably evolved in conditions of abundant water and salt supply. ",
"Compared to other primates, humans are stronger swimmers and can dive both deeper and further. ",
"The diving reflex (slowing down of heartbeat and oxygen usage in water) increases the resistance of the brain to apnea, and its magnitude in human divers is comparable to that in semi-aquatic mammals such as otters and beavers. ",
"Compared to other primates, humans are unusually fond of immersing themselves in water. This is manifested in the popularity of beach holidays, swimming and bathing. ",
"AAH conflicts with what is known about evolutionary processes in general. ",
"A major problem with AAH is that it is based on extreme environmental determinism. ",
"AAH is not needed, because all human traits can be explained by terrestrial scenarios. ",
"AAH is merely an exercise in comparative anatomy, not a scientific hypothesis. ",
"Not all aquatic mammals have naked skin, so hairlessness cannot be considered an aquatic adaptation. ",
"Humans may be similar to aquatic mammals in some traits, but this is only a coincidence and has no evolutionary relevance. ",
"According to AAH, humans should swim better than apes and have more streamlined bodies, but they do not. ",
"AAH lacks credibility, because the evidence presented in its favor is false. ",
"AAH is not supported by fossil evidence, because this shows no skeletal adaptations to an aquatic environment. ",
"AAH is contradicted by the fossil record, because this suggests a permanently non-aquatic environment. ",
"AAH lacks credibility, because its proponents do not agree on when and where the supposed aquatic phase took place. ",
"There has not been enough time for an aquatic phase. ",
"AAH is too simplistic to be taken seriously. ",
"AAH is less parsimonious than other proposed hypotheses: it has to explain both how human traits evolved in water, and how they were retained after return to land. ",
"AAH is internally less consistent than other proposed hypotheses. ",
"AAH is unscientific, because it cannot make predictions. ",
"AAH is unscientific, because it has been used in feministic argumentation. ",
"AAH can be ignored, because it was not published in a peer reviewed journal, and because it is mostly discussed in forums other than scientific journals. ",
"AAH can be ignored, because its main proponents are not professionals in the field of human evolution. ",
"AAH is pseudoscience comparable to creationism. ",
"- ",
"Articles in scientific journals ",
"Books by Elaine Morgan ",
"Books by other authors ",
"Articles or programs in popular media (press, TV, radio) ",
"University courses on human evolution ",
"Personal communication from someone who knew the hypothesis ",
"Blogs or other personal web pages ",
"Wikipedia ",
"AAH was rejected as implausible. ",
"AAH was mentioned or described, but no opinion on its validity was expressed. ",
"AAH was found more plausible than alternative hypotheses. "
)

# oprint(head(data))

X <- colnames(data)[X]

graph <- function(data, x, fillcol) {

fillname <- colnames(data)[fillcol]
my_title <- wrapper(titles[fillcol], width = 50)

out <- ggplot(data, aes_string(x = x, weight = 1, fill = fillname)) +
geom_bar(position = "fill", na.rm = TRUE) +
theme_grey(base_size = 24) +
labs(title = my_title)

return(out)
}

wrapper <- function(x, ...) paste(strwrap(x, ...), collapse = "\n")

if(is.null(fillcol)) fillcol <- 26:108 # If not defined, show all result columns as graphs.

for(i in fillcol) {
print(graph(data, X, i))
}

Literary review summary

Hidden below you can find a summary of the articles found in a literary review on the evolution of human traits done in the summer 2016 to find out, which hypothesis on which human traits are currently discussed in scientific articles, and which according to them seem the most likely ways the human traits have evolved. F, A and N in the last column stand for For, Against and Neutral, according to which point of view is argued in the article about the hypothesis in question.

Show details

Literary review summary(-)
Obs	Article	Year	Type	Hypothesis	Trait	F/A/N
1	Ko 2015-1	2015	Review article	Better view	Bipedalism	A
2	Videan & McGrew 2002	2002	Research article	Better view	Bipedalism	A
3	Bender et al. 2007	2007	Review article	Better view	Bipedalism	A
4	Sutou 2012	2012	Essay	Carrying baby	Bipedalism	F
5	Watson et al. 2008	2008	Research article	Carrying baby	Bipedalism	A
6	Dávid-Barret & Dunbar 2016	2016	Research article	Carrying food	Bipedalism	A
7	Ko 2015-1	2015	Review article	Carrying food	Bipedalism	F
8	Videan & McGrew 2002	2002	Research article	Carrying food	Bipedalism	F
9	Carvalho et al. 2012	2012	Comment	Carrying food	Bipedalism	F
10	Sutou 2012	2012	Essay	Carrying food	Bipedalism	F
11	Lieberman 2011	2011	Essay	Energy efficiency	Bipedalism	F
12	Rodman & McHenry 1980	1980	Research article	Energy efficiency	Bipedalism	F
13	Dávid-Barret & Dunbar 2016	2016	Research article	Energy efficiency	Bipedalism	N
14	Sockol et al. 2007	2007	Research article	Energy efficiency	Bipedalism	F
15	Leonard & Robertson 1995	1995	Comment	Energy efficiency	Bipedalism	F
16	Leonard & Robertson 2001	2001	Comment	Energy efficiency	Bipedalism	F
17	Isbell & Young 1996	1996	Review article	Energy efficiency	Bipedalism	F
18	Pontzer et al. 2009	2009	Research article	Energy efficiency	Bipedalism	F
19	Pickford 2002	2002	Review article	Energy efficiency	Bipedalism	F
20	Halsey & White 2012	2012	Research article	Energy efficiency	Bipedalism	A
21	Wang et al. 2003	2003	Research article	Energy efficiency	Bipedalism	A
22	Steudel 1996	1996	Research article	Energy efficiency	Bipedalism	A
23	Taylor & Rowntree 1973	1973	Comment	Energy efficiency	Bipedalism	A
24	Steudel-Numbers 2003	2003	Research article	Energy efficiency	Bipedalism	A
25	Crompton et al. 1998	1998	Research article	Energy efficiency	Bipedalism	A
26	Wheeler 1984	1984	Review article	Energy efficiency	Bipedalism	N
27	Carey & Crompton 2005	2005	Research article	Energy efficiency	Bipedalism	N
28	Videan & McGrew 2002	2002	Research article	Foraging	Bipedalism	F
29	Dávid-Barret & Dunbar 2016	2016	Research article	Thermoregulation-b	Bipedalism	N
30	Wheeler 1984	1984	Review article	Thermoregulation-b	Bipedalism	F
31	Morgan 1993	1993	Review article	Thermoregulation-b	Bipedalism	A
32	Porter 1993	1993	Comment	Thermoregulation-b	Bipedalism	F
33	Wheeler 1994	1994	Comment	Thermoregulation-b	Bipedalism	F
34	Wheeler 1991-1	1991	Research article	Thermoregulation-b	Bipedalism	F
35	Wheeler 1991-2	1991	Research article	Thermoregulation-b	Bipedalism	F
36	Ruxton & Wilkinson 2011	2011	Research article	Thermoregulation-b	Bipedalism	A
37	Ko 2015-1	2015	Review article	Thermoregulation-b	Bipedalism	A
38	Chaplin et al. 1994	1994	Research article	Thermoregulation-b	Bipedalism	A
39	Bender et al. 2007	2007	Review article	Thermoregulation-b	Bipedalism	A
40	Roberts & Thorpe 2014	2014	Review article	Thinner branches	Bipedalism	F
41	Stanford 2006	2006	Research article	Thinner branches	Bipedalism	F
42	Crompton et al. 2010	2010	Review article	Thinner branches	Bipedalism	F
43	Sigmon 1971	1971	Research article	Thinner branches	Bipedalism	F
44	Stanford 2002	2002	Brief communication	Thinner branches	Bipedalism	F
45	Senut 2006	2006	Book section	Thinner branches	Bipedalism	F
46	Thorpe 2009	2009	Research article	Thinner branches	Bipedalism	F
47	Tuttle 1981	1981		Thinner branches	Bipedalism	F
48	Preuschoft 2004	2004	Review article	Thinner branches	Bipedalism	F
49	Thorpe et al. 2007-1	2007	Report	Thinner branches	Bipedalism	F
50	Thorpe et al. 2014	2014	Debate	Thinner branches	Bipedalism	F
51	Crompton et al. 2003	2003		Thinner branches	Bipedalism	F
52	Gebo 1996	1996	Research article	Thinner branches	Bipedalism	A
53	Begun et al. 2007	2007	Comment	Thinner branches	Bipedalism	A
54	Thorpe et al. 2007-2	2007	Comment	Thinner branches	Bipedalism	F
55	Wheeler 1984	1984	Review article	Tool use	Bipedalism	A
56	Harcourt‐Smith 2007	2007	Book section	Tool use	Bipedalism	A
57	Brender et al. 1997	1997		Wading	Bipedalism	F
58	Morgan 1993	1993	Review article	Wading	Bipedalism	F
59	Wrangham et al. 2009	2009	Research article	Wading	Bipedalism	F
60	Niemitz 2010	2010	Review article	Wading	Bipedalism	F
61	Kuliukas 2002	2002	Research article	Wading	Bipedalism	F
62	Kuliukas 2009	2009	Review article	Wading	Bipedalism	F
63	Kuliukas et al. 2009	2009	Research article	Wading	Bipedalism	F
64	Bender et al. 2007	2007	Review article	Wading	Bipedalism	F
65	Isler & van Schaik 2014	2014	Review article	Collaborative hunting	Brain	F
66	Carmody & Wrangham 2009	2009	Research article	Cooking	Brain	N
67	Joordens et al. 2014	2014	Research article	Fish	Brain	F
68	Broadhusrt et al. 2002	2002	Review article	Fish	Brain	F
69	Broadhusrt et al. 1998	1998	Review article	Fish	Brain	F
70	Cunnane 2007	2007	Comment	Fish	Brain	F
71	Cunnane et al. 2007	2007	Short report	Fish	Brain	F
72	Cunnane & Crawford 2003	2003	Review article	Fish	Brain	F
73	Cunnane et al. 1993	1993	Research article	Fish	Brain	F
74	Cunnane & Crawford 2014	2014	Research article	Fish	Brain	F
75	Verhaegen 1995	1995	Brief communication	Fish	Brain	F
76	Braun et al. 2010	2010	Research article	Fish	Brain	F
77	Carlson & Kingston 2007-1	2007	Research article	Fish	Brain	A
78	Carlson & Kingston 2007-2	2007	Comment	Fish	Brain	A
79	Langdon 2006	2006	Review article	Fish	Brain	A
80	Lakatos & Janka 2008	2008		Language	Brain	F
81	Brown & Greenhood 1991	1991	Review article	Language	Brain	F
82	Falk 1980	1980	Review article	Language	Brain	F
83	Previc 2002	2002	Brief communication	Meat	Brain	F
84	Speth 1989	1989	Research article	Meat	Brain	A
85	Ibraimov 2007	2007	Review article	Nakedness	Brain	F
86	Shea 1989	1989	Review article	Neoteny	Brain	A
87	Sandel et al. 2016	2016	Research article	Social	Brain	F
88	Shultz & Dunbar 2010	2010	Research article	Social	Brain	F
89	Shultz & Dunbar 2007	2007	Review article	Social	Brain	F
90	Navarrete et al. 2011	2011	Letter	Social	Brain	F
91	Dunbar 1992	1992	Research article	Social	Brain	F
92	Dunbar 1998	1998	Research article	Social	Brain	F
93	Dunbar 2003	2003	Review article	Social	Brain	F
94	Allman 1999	1999	Book section	Social	Brain	A
95	Falk 1980	1980	Review article	Warfare	Brain	A
96	Pitt 1978	1978	Review article	Warfare	Brain	F
97	Pawlowski 1999	1999		Body shape	Fat	N
98	Cunnane & Crawford 2003	2003	Review article	Energy supply	Fat	F
99	Wells 2006	2006	Research article	Energy supply	Fat	F
100	Correia et al. 2004	2004	Research article	Energy supply	Fat	F
101	Rebora 2010	2010	Review article	Insulation	Fat	A
102	Wheeler 1984	1984	Review article	Savannah thermoregulation	Fat	F
103	Pawlowski 1998	1998		Savannah thermoregulation	Fat	F
104	Pawlowski 1999	1999		Savannah thermoregulation	Fat	F
105	Rantala 2007	2007	Review article	Clothes	Hairlessness	A
106	Pagel & Bomder 2003	2003	Letter	Clothes	Hairlessness	N
107	Pagel & Bomder 2004	2004	Book section	Clothes	Hairlessness	N
108	Rebora 2010	2010	Review article	Clothes	Hairlessness	A
109	Kushlan 1985	1985	Review article	Clothes	Hairlessness	N
110	Glass 1966	1966	Letter	Clothes	Hairlessness	F
111	Hershkovitz 1966	1966	Letter	Clothes	Hairlessness	A
112	Brace et al. 1966	1966	Letter	Clothes	Hairlessness	A
113	Rantala 2007	2007	Review article	Drag	Hairlessness	A
114	Pagel & Bomder 2003	2003	Letter	Drag	Hairlessness	A
115	Rebora 2010	2010	Review article	Drag	Hairlessness	A
116	Wheeler 1985	1985	Review article	Drag	Hairlessness	A
117	Rantala 2007	2007	Review article	Ectoparasites	Hairlessness	F
118	Pagel & Bomder 2003	2003	Letter	Ectoparasites	Hairlessness	F
119	Rantala 1999	1999	Discussion	Ectoparasites	Hairlessness	F
120	Dean & Siva-Jothy 2012	2012	Letter	Ectoparasites	Hairlessness	F
121	Pagel & Bomder 2004	2004	Book section	Ectoparasites	Hairlessness	F
122	Dunn 1966	1966	Comment	Ectoparasites	Hairlessness	A
123	Rebora 2010	2010	Review article	Ectoparasites	Hairlessness	A
124	Giles 2011	2011	Review article	Skin contact baby	Hairlessness	F
125	Giles 2011	2011	Review article	Skin contact sex	Hairlessness	F
126	Rantala 2007	2007	Review article	Skin contact sex	Hairlessness	A
127	Wheeler 1984	1984	Review article	Thermoregulation-h	Hairlessness	F
128	Ruxton & Wilkinson 2011	2011	Research article	Thermoregulation-h	Hairlessness	F
129	Ibraimov 2007	2007	Review article	Thermoregulation-h	Hairlessness	F
130	Rantala 2007	2007	Review article	Thermoregulation-h	Hairlessness	A
131	Pagel & Bomder 2003	2003	Letter	Thermoregulation-h	Hairlessness	A
132	Rebora 2010	2010	Review article	Thermoregulation-h	Hairlessness	A
133	Wheeler 1985	1985	Review article	Thermoregulation-h	Hairlessness	F
134	Schwarts & Rosenblum 2005	2005	Research article	Thermoregulation-h	Hairlessness	F
135	Lupi 2008	2008	Review article	Thermoregulation-h	Hairlessness	F
136	Wheeler 1996	1996	Comment	Thermoregulation-h	Hairlessness	F
137	Wheeler 1992	1992	Research article	Thermoregulation-h	Hairlessness	F
138	Ebling 1985	1985	Review article	Thermoregulation-h	Hairlessness	F
139	Kushlan 1985	1985	Review article	Thermoregulation-h	Hairlessness	F
140	Brace et al. 1966	1966	Letter	Thermoregulation-h	Hairlessness	F
141	Amaral 1996	1966	Review article	Thermoregulation-h	Hairlessness	N
142	Davidson 2003	2003	Review article	Articulation	Larynx	F
143	Shprintzen 2003	2003	Comment	Articulation	Larynx	A
144	Nishimura et al. 2006	2006	Research article	Articulation	Larynx	A
145	Frey et al. 2011	2011		Impressive voice	Larynx	F
146	Frey et al. 2015	2015	Research article	Impressive voice	Larynx	F
147	Hombert 2010	2010	Book section	Impressive voice	Larynx	F
148	Fitch & Reby 2001	2001	Research article	Impressive voice	Larynx	F
149	Fitch 2002	2002	Review article	Impressive voice	Larynx	F
150	Apicella & Feinberg 2009	2009	Research article	Impressive voice	Larynx	N
151	Apicella et al. 2007	2007	Letter	Impressive voice	Larynx	N
152	Verhaegen 1995	1995	Brief communication	Diving	Other	F
153	Verhaegen et al. 2002	2002	Opinion	Diving	Other	F
154	MacLarnon & Hewitt 1999	1999	Research article	Diving	Other	A
155	Falhman & Schagatey 2014	2014	Review article	Diving	Other	F
156	Schagatey 2011	2011	Book section	Diving	Other	F
157	Verhaegen 1993	2013	Review article	Nose	Other	F
158	Mladina et al. 2009	2009	Review article	Nose	Other	N
159	Verhaegen 1995	1995	Brief communication	Smell	Other	F
160	Verhaegen et al. 2007	2007	Book section	Smell	Other	F
161	Wheeler 1991-2	1991	Research article	Sweating	Other	A
162	Wheeler 1992	1992	Research article	Sweating	Other	A
163	MacLarnon & Hewitt 1999	1999	Research article	Bipedalism	Speech	A
164	Stout & Chaminade 2012	2012	Review article	Culture	Speech	F
165	Corballis 2009	2009	Book section	Culture	Speech	F
166	Lieberman 1973	1973	Review article	Hunting	Speech	N
167	Shprintzen 2003	2003	Comment	Larynx	Speech	A
168	Nishimura et al. 2006	2006	Research article	Larynx	Speech	A
169	Falk 2004	2004	Review article	Reassurance	Speech	F
170	Brown & Greenhood 1991	1991	Review article	Sociality	Speech	F
171	Dunbar 1993	1993		Sociality	Speech	F
172	Hamilton 1974	1974	Review article	Sociality	Speech	F
173	Kurland & Beckerman 1985	1985		Sociality	Speech	F
174	Locke 2001	2001	Review article	Sociality	Speech	F
175	Ko 2015-2	2015	Review article	Sociality	Speech	N

Keywords

Human evolution, Bipedalism, Brain, Hairnessless, Subcutaneous fat, Speech

References

Related files

Difference between revisions of "Evolutionary origin of human traits"

Revision as of 09:01, 5 August 2016

Contents

Question

Answer

Rationale

Calculations

Literary review summary

See also

Keywords

References

Related files

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@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
-[[en:Aquatic ape hypothesis]]
 [[heande:Evolutionary origin of human traits]]
 [[Category:Biology]]
+[[Category:Human evolution]]
 [[Category:Contains R code]]
 {{variable|moderator=Hanna}}
-==Question==
+== Question ==
 Why and how did humans become so different from other apes?
-==Answer==
+== Answer ==
 == Rationale ==
@@ Line 21: / Line 19: @@
 For single answer analyses, multinomial regression models should be applied.
-===Calculations===
+=== Calculations ===
 <rcode label="Test" graphics="1">
@@ Line 202: / Line 200: @@
 </rcode>
-==See also==
+=== Literary review summary ===
+Hidden below you can find a summary of the articles found in a literary review on the evolution of human traits done in the summer 2016 to find out, which hypothesis on which human traits are currently discussed in scientific articles, and which according to them seem the most likely ways the human traits have evolved. F, A and N in the last column stand for For, Against and Neutral, according to which point of view is argued in the article about the hypothesis in question.
+{{hidden|
+<t2b name="Literary review summary" index="Article, Year, Type, Hypothesis, Trait, observation" locations="F/A/N" unit="-">
+Ko 2015-1|2015|Review article|Better view|Bipedalism|A
+Videan & McGrew 2002|2002|Research article|Better view|Bipedalism|A
+Bender et al. 2007|2007|Review article|Better view|Bipedalism|A
+Sutou 2012|2012|Essay|Carrying baby|Bipedalism|F
+Watson et al. 2008|2008|Research article|Carrying baby|Bipedalism|A
+Dávid-Barret & Dunbar 2016|2016|Research article|Carrying food|Bipedalism|A
+Ko 2015-1|2015|Review article|Carrying food|Bipedalism|F
+Videan & McGrew 2002|2002|Research article|Carrying food|Bipedalism|F
+Carvalho et al. 2012|2012|Comment|Carrying food|Bipedalism|F
+Sutou 2012|2012|Essay|Carrying food|Bipedalism|F
+Lieberman 2011|2011|Essay|Energy efficiency|Bipedalism|F
+Rodman & McHenry 1980|1980|Research article|Energy efficiency|Bipedalism|F
+Dávid-Barret & Dunbar 2016|2016|Research article|Energy efficiency|Bipedalism|N
+Sockol et al. 2007|2007|Research article|Energy efficiency|Bipedalism|F
+Leonard & Robertson 1995|1995|Comment|Energy efficiency|Bipedalism|F
+Leonard & Robertson 2001|2001|Comment|Energy efficiency|Bipedalism|F
+Isbell & Young 1996|1996|Review article|Energy efficiency|Bipedalism|F
+Pontzer et al. 2009|2009|Research article|Energy efficiency|Bipedalism|F
+Pickford 2002|2002|Review article|Energy efficiency|Bipedalism|F
+Halsey & White 2012|2012|Research article|Energy efficiency|Bipedalism|A
+Wang et al. 2003|2003|Research article|Energy efficiency|Bipedalism|A
+Steudel 1996|1996|Research article|Energy efficiency|Bipedalism|A
+Taylor & Rowntree 1973|1973|Comment|Energy efficiency|Bipedalism|A
+Steudel-Numbers 2003|2003|Research article|Energy efficiency|Bipedalism|A
+Crompton et al. 1998|1998|Research article|Energy efficiency|Bipedalism|A
+Wheeler 1984|1984|Review article|Energy efficiency|Bipedalism|N
+Carey & Crompton 2005|2005|Research article|Energy efficiency|Bipedalism|N
+Videan & McGrew 2002|2002|Research article|Foraging|Bipedalism|F
+Dávid-Barret & Dunbar 2016|2016|Research article|Thermoregulation-b|Bipedalism|N
+Wheeler 1984|1984|Review article|Thermoregulation-b|Bipedalism|F
+Morgan 1993|1993|Review article|Thermoregulation-b|Bipedalism|A
+Porter 1993|1993|Comment|Thermoregulation-b|Bipedalism|F
+Wheeler 1994|1994|Comment|Thermoregulation-b|Bipedalism|F
+Wheeler 1991-1|1991|Research article|Thermoregulation-b|Bipedalism|F
+Wheeler 1991-2|1991|Research article|Thermoregulation-b|Bipedalism|F
+Ruxton & Wilkinson 2011|2011|Research article|Thermoregulation-b|Bipedalism|A
+Ko 2015-1|2015|Review article|Thermoregulation-b|Bipedalism|A
+Chaplin et al. 1994|1994|Research article|Thermoregulation-b|Bipedalism|A
+Bender et al. 2007|2007|Review article|Thermoregulation-b|Bipedalism|A
+Roberts & Thorpe  2014|2014|Review article|Thinner branches|Bipedalism|F
+Stanford 2006|2006|Research article|Thinner branches|Bipedalism|F
+Crompton et al. 2010|2010|Review article|Thinner branches|Bipedalism|F
+Sigmon 1971|1971|Research article|Thinner branches|Bipedalism|F
+Stanford 2002|2002|Brief communication|Thinner branches|Bipedalism|F
+Senut 2006|2006|Book section|Thinner branches|Bipedalism|F
+Thorpe 2009|2009|Research article|Thinner branches|Bipedalism|F
+Tuttle 1981|1981||Thinner branches|Bipedalism|F
+Preuschoft 2004|2004|Review article|Thinner branches|Bipedalism|F
+Thorpe et al. 2007-1|2007|Report|Thinner branches|Bipedalism|F
+Thorpe et al. 2014|2014|Debate|Thinner branches|Bipedalism|F
+Crompton et al. 2003|2003||Thinner branches|Bipedalism|F
+Gebo 1996|1996|Research article|Thinner branches|Bipedalism|A
+Begun et al. 2007|2007|Comment|Thinner branches|Bipedalism|A
+Thorpe et al. 2007-2|2007|Comment|Thinner branches|Bipedalism|F
+Wheeler 1984|1984|Review article|Tool use|Bipedalism|A
+Harcourt‐Smith 2007|2007|Book section|Tool use|Bipedalism|A
+Brender et al. 1997|1997||Wading|Bipedalism|F
+Morgan 1993|1993|Review article|Wading|Bipedalism|F
+Wrangham et al. 2009|2009|Research article|Wading|Bipedalism|F
+Niemitz 2010|2010|Review article|Wading|Bipedalism|F
+Kuliukas 2002|2002|Research article|Wading|Bipedalism|F
+Kuliukas 2009|2009|Review article|Wading|Bipedalism|F
+Kuliukas et al. 2009|2009|Research article|Wading|Bipedalism|F
+Bender et al. 2007|2007|Review article|Wading|Bipedalism|F
+Isler & van Schaik 2014|2014|Review article|Collaborative hunting|Brain|F
+Carmody & Wrangham 2009|2009|Research article|Cooking|Brain|N
+Joordens et al. 2014|2014|Research article|Fish|Brain|F
+Broadhusrt et al. 2002|2002|Review article|Fish|Brain|F
+Broadhusrt et al. 1998|1998|Review article|Fish|Brain|F
+Cunnane 2007|2007|Comment|Fish|Brain|F
+Cunnane et al. 2007|2007|Short report|Fish|Brain|F
+Cunnane & Crawford 2003|2003|Review article|Fish|Brain|F
+Cunnane et al. 1993|1993|Research article|Fish|Brain|F
+Cunnane & Crawford 2014|2014|Research article|Fish|Brain|F
+Verhaegen 1995|1995|Brief communication|Fish|Brain|F
+Braun et al. 2010|2010|Research article|Fish|Brain|F
+Carlson & Kingston 2007-1|2007|Research article|Fish|Brain|A
+Carlson & Kingston 2007-2|2007|Comment|Fish|Brain|A
+Langdon 2006|2006|Review article|Fish|Brain|A
+Lakatos & Janka 2008|2008||Language|Brain|F
+Brown & Greenhood 1991|1991|Review article|Language|Brain|F
+Falk 1980|1980|Review article|Language|Brain|F
+Previc 2002|2002|Brief communication|Meat|Brain|F
+Speth 1989|1989|Research article|Meat|Brain|A
+Ibraimov 2007|2007|Review article|Nakedness|Brain|F
+Shea 1989|1989|Review article|Neoteny|Brain|A
+Sandel et al. 2016|2016|Research article|Social|Brain|F
+Shultz & Dunbar 2010|2010|Research article|Social|Brain|F
+Shultz & Dunbar 2007|2007|Review article|Social|Brain|F
+Navarrete et al. 2011|2011|Letter|Social|Brain|F
+Dunbar 1992|1992|Research article|Social|Brain|F
+Dunbar 1998|1998|Research article|Social|Brain|F
+Dunbar 2003|2003|Review article|Social|Brain|F
+Allman 1999|1999|Book section|Social|Brain|A
+Falk 1980|1980|Review article|Warfare|Brain|A
+Pitt 1978|1978|Review article|Warfare|Brain|F
+Pawlowski 1999|1999||Body shape|Fat|N
+Cunnane & Crawford 2003|2003|Review article|Energy supply|Fat|F
+Wells 2006|2006|Research article|Energy supply|Fat|F
+Correia et al. 2004|2004|Research article|Energy supply|Fat|F
+Rebora 2010|2010|Review article|Insulation|Fat|A
+Wheeler 1984|1984|Review article|Savannah thermoregulation|Fat|F
+Pawlowski 1998|1998||Savannah thermoregulation|Fat|F
+Pawlowski 1999|1999||Savannah thermoregulation|Fat|F
+Rantala 2007|2007|Review article|Clothes|Hairlessness|A
+Pagel & Bomder 2003|2003|Letter|Clothes|Hairlessness|N
+Pagel & Bomder 2004|2004|Book section|Clothes|Hairlessness|N
+Rebora 2010|2010|Review article|Clothes|Hairlessness|A
+Kushlan 1985|1985|Review article|Clothes|Hairlessness|N
+Glass 1966|1966|Letter|Clothes|Hairlessness|F
+Hershkovitz 1966|1966|Letter|Clothes|Hairlessness|A
+Brace et al. 1966|1966|Letter|Clothes |Hairlessness|A
+Rantala 2007|2007|Review article|Drag|Hairlessness|A
+Pagel & Bomder 2003|2003|Letter|Drag|Hairlessness|A
+Rebora 2010|2010|Review article|Drag|Hairlessness|A
+Wheeler 1985|1985|Review article|Drag|Hairlessness|A
+Rantala 2007|2007|Review article|Ectoparasites|Hairlessness|F
+Pagel & Bomder 2003|2003|Letter|Ectoparasites|Hairlessness|F
+Rantala 1999|1999|Discussion|Ectoparasites|Hairlessness|F
+Dean & Siva-Jothy 2012|2012|Letter|Ectoparasites|Hairlessness|F
+Pagel & Bomder 2004|2004|Book section|Ectoparasites|Hairlessness|F
+Dunn 1966|1966|Comment|Ectoparasites|Hairlessness|A
+Rebora 2010|2010|Review article|Ectoparasites|Hairlessness|A
+Giles 2011|2011|Review article|Skin contact baby|Hairlessness|F
+Giles 2011|2011|Review article|Skin contact sex|Hairlessness|F
+Rantala 2007|2007|Review article|Skin contact sex|Hairlessness|A
+Wheeler 1984|1984|Review article|Thermoregulation-h|Hairlessness|F
+Ruxton & Wilkinson 2011|2011|Research article|Thermoregulation-h|Hairlessness|F
+Ibraimov 2007|2007|Review article|Thermoregulation-h|Hairlessness|F
+Rantala 2007|2007|Review article|Thermoregulation-h|Hairlessness|A
+Pagel & Bomder 2003|2003|Letter|Thermoregulation-h|Hairlessness|A
+Rebora 2010|2010|Review article|Thermoregulation-h|Hairlessness|A
+Wheeler 1985|1985|Review article|Thermoregulation-h|Hairlessness|F
+Schwarts & Rosenblum 2005|2005|Research article|Thermoregulation-h|Hairlessness|F
+Lupi 2008|2008|Review article|Thermoregulation-h|Hairlessness|F
+Wheeler 1996|1996|Comment|Thermoregulation-h|Hairlessness|F
+Wheeler 1992|1992|Research article|Thermoregulation-h|Hairlessness|F
+Ebling 1985|1985|Review article|Thermoregulation-h|Hairlessness|F
+Kushlan 1985|1985|Review article|Thermoregulation-h|Hairlessness|F
+Brace et al. 1966|1966|Letter|Thermoregulation-h|Hairlessness|F
+Amaral 1996|1966|Review article|Thermoregulation-h|Hairlessness|N
+Davidson 2003|2003|Review article|Articulation|Larynx|F
+Shprintzen 2003|2003|Comment|Articulation|Larynx|A
+Nishimura et al. 2006|2006|Research article|Articulation|Larynx|A
+Frey et al. 2011|2011||Impressive voice|Larynx|F
+Frey et al. 2015|2015|Research article|Impressive voice|Larynx|F
+Hombert 2010|2010|Book section|Impressive voice|Larynx|F
+Fitch & Reby 2001|2001|Research article|Impressive voice|Larynx|F
+Fitch 2002|2002|Review article|Impressive voice|Larynx|F
+Apicella & Feinberg 2009|2009|Research article|Impressive voice|Larynx|N
+Apicella et al. 2007|2007|Letter|Impressive voice|Larynx|N
+Verhaegen 1995|1995|Brief communication|Diving|Other|F
+Verhaegen et al. 2002|2002|Opinion|Diving|Other|F
+MacLarnon & Hewitt 1999|1999|Research article|Diving|Other|A
+Falhman & Schagatey 2014|2014|Review article|Diving|Other|F
+Schagatey 2011|2011|Book section|Diving|Other|F
+Verhaegen 1993|2013|Review article|Nose|Other|F
+Mladina et al. 2009|2009|Review article|Nose|Other|N
+Verhaegen 1995|1995|Brief communication|Smell|Other|F
+Verhaegen et al. 2007|2007|Book section|Smell|Other|F
+Wheeler 1991-2|1991|Research article|Sweating|Other|A
+Wheeler 1992|1992|Research article|Sweating|Other|A
+MacLarnon & Hewitt 1999|1999|Research article|Bipedalism|Speech|A
+Stout & Chaminade 2012|2012|Review article|Culture|Speech|F
+Corballis 2009|2009|Book section|Culture|Speech|F
+Lieberman 1973|1973|Review article|Hunting|Speech|N
+Shprintzen 2003|2003|Comment|Larynx|Speech|A
+Nishimura et al. 2006|2006|Research article|Larynx|Speech|A
+Falk 2004|2004|Review article|Reassurance|Speech|F
+Brown & Greenhood 1991|1991|Review article|Sociality|Speech|F
+Dunbar 1993|1993||Sociality|Speech|F
+Hamilton 1974|1974|Review article|Sociality|Speech|F
+Kurland & Beckerman 1985|1985||Sociality|Speech|F
+Locke 2001|2001|Review article|Sociality|Speech|F
+Ko 2015-2|2015|Review article|Sociality|Speech|N
+</t2b>
+}}
+== See also ==
 Human evolution hypotheses described in [[Wikipedia]]:
 * [[:en:Aquatic ape hypothesis|Aquatic ape hypothesis]]
+* [[:en:Bipedalism#Humans|Hypotheses explaining bipedalism]]
+* [[:en:Endurance running hypothesis|Endurance running hypothesis]]
+* [[:en:Gathering hypothesis|Gathering hypothesis]]
 * [[:en:Hunting hypothesis|Hunting hypothesis]]
 * [[:en:Killer ape hypothesis|Killer ape hypothesis]]
-* [[:en:Endurance running hypothesis|Endurance running hypothesis]]
-* [[:en:Gathering hypothesis|Gathering hypothesis]]
-* [[:en:Bipedalism#Humans|Hypotheses explaining bipedalism]]
-==Keywords==
+== Keywords ==
+Human evolution, Bipedalism, Brain, Hairnessless, Subcutaneous fat, Speech
-==References==
+== References ==
 <references/>
-==Related files==
+== Related files ==
 {{mfiles}}